Gene Therapy Methods and Delivery Systems

Gene Therapy Methods and Delivery Systems Genes the units of heredity â€Å"There can be little doubt that the idea of ‘the gene’ has been the central organizing theme of twentieth century biology† philosopher and biochemist Lenny Moss claimed in 2003. A gene is the basic unit of heredity in a living organism. Genes hold the information to build and maintain their cells and pass genetic traits to offspring. In general terms, a gene is a segment of nucleic acid that, taken as a whole, specifies a trait. The biological entity responsible for defining traits was termed a gene, but the biological basis for inheritance remained unknown until DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) was identified as the genetic material in the 1940s. In cells, a gene is a portion of DNA that contains both coding sequences that determine what the gene does, and non-coding sequences that determine when the gene is active (expressed). When a gene is active, the coding and non-coding sequences are copied in a process called transcription, producing an RNA (Ribonucleic ac id) copy of the genes information. RNA can then direct synthesis of proteins via the genetic code. In other cases, the RNA is used directly, for example, as part of the ribosome. The molecules resulting from gene expression, whether RNA or protein, are known as gene products, and are responsible for the development and functioning of all living things. Every cell requires a host of genes that act as blueprints of all the proteins essential for its proper functioning. DNA is a linear polymer of deoxynucleotide monomers. Chemically speaking, it has a double helical structure of two polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs of the nucleotide strands. Each nucleotide in DNA is comprised of three components, a heterocyclic base, a sugar (2-deoxyribose) and a phosphate group. The nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain are connected through phosphodiester bonds. The nitrogenous bases are of two types, namely, purine based adenine (A) guanine (G), and pyrimidine based cytosine (C) thymine (T). In DNA, base pairs form only between A T and G C and thus the base sequence of each single strand can be deduced from that of its complementary strand. Gene Therapy: Molecular Bandage? Gene therapy is believed by many to be the therapy of the twenty first century because it aims to eradicate cause rather than symptoms of diseases by delivering a normal functioning copy of the mutated gene and its associated regulatory elements into the cell nucleus (1-3). It is a technique whereby an absent or a faulty gene is replaced by a working gene, so that the body can make the correct enzyme or protein and consequently eliminate the root cause of the disease. A potential approach for treating genetic disorders is gene therapy. The most likely candidates for future gene therapy trials will be single gene disorders like, cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, familial hypercholesterolemia, ADA deficiency, Gaucher disease, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency etc. Apart from these monogenic disorders, gene therapy also holds the potential of treating acquired diseases such as cancer, by inhibiting oncogene expression or by restoring tumor suppressor genes or through immunomodulation (i.e. by i ncreasing immune response to tumor antigens). Cardiovascular diseases too remain as one of the most â€Å"promising† targets for gene therapy because of the ready accessibility of the vascular system for gene transfer (4). Types of Gene Therapy: Depending on the type of cells into which genes are transferred a process popularly known as â€Å"transfection†. Gene therapy can be broadly classified into two types: Somatic cell Germline gene therapy. Somatic Cell gene therapy: This type of therapy involves the transfection of somatic (non-reproductive) cells especially of those tissues in which expression of the concerned gene is critical for health. Expression of the introduced gene relieves/eliminates symptoms of the disorder, but this effect is not heritable. Germline gene therapy: This type of therapy involves gene transfer into reproductive cells (egg or sperm cells). Here germ cells are modified by the introduction of functional genes, which are ordinarily integrated into their genomes. It would change the genetic pool of the entire human species, and future generations would have to live with that  change. Depending upon the method of correcting the faulty gene, gene therapy can be classified into the following categories: Gene augmentation therapy: This type of therapy is the most appropriate one for the treatment of inherited diseases caused by the loss of a functional gene. It involves supplementing the body cells with a functional copy of the lost gene so that the missing protein is expressed at sufficient levels in the body. It is only suitable if the pathogenic effects of the disease are reversible. Gene inhibition therapy: Its aim is to introduce a gene whose product inhibits the expression of the pathogenic gene or interferes with the activity of its product (5). Suicide gene therapy: This method is best suited for a disease like cancer where the aim is to eliminate a certain population of cells. It involves the transfection of such cells with a suicide gene, whose product is toxic. The suicide genes should be appropriately targeted to avoid widespread cell death (6). Depending upon the mode of delivering genes into a patient’s body, gene therapy can be classified into the following two types: Ex vivo gene therapy: In ex vivo gene therapy, gene transfer occurs outside the patient’s body. This is again sub-divided into two types viz, Autologous Non-autologous. Autologous gene therapy involves the transfection of cells derived from the patient followed by the re-introduction of these cells into the patient’s body. Non-autologous gene therapy involves the transfection of cells not derived from the patient’s body. In vivo gene therapy: In this method the therapeutic gene is directly introduced into the body by injection or by inhalation with the help of a suitably designed vector. Gene Delivery Vectors: Key to Success in Gene therapy Gene therapy, as a novel therapeutic modality, holds enormous promise for the treatment of a multitude of human diseases. However, till date it has failed regrettably in spite of more than 1500 clinical trials completed or currently underway around the world. The primary reason for the failure of the clinical success of gene therapy is the lack of efficient gene delivery agents, commonly referred to as transfection vectors. However, since the biological cell surfaces are negatively charged (due to the presence of glycoproteins and glycolipids containing negatively charged sialic acid residues on cell surface), spontaneous entry of polyanionic naked genes (DNA) into body cells is an inefficient process. Hence â€Å"transfer vehicle† or a â€Å"vector† in needed to condense the macromolecular DNA and to help it in crossing the plasma membrane barrier. Again delivery of therapeutic DNA to the desired body tissue is important to overcome adverse affects. In other words, the problems of developing clinically viable gene therapy methods and designing safe efficient gene delivery reagents are inseparable: shortcomings in one is going to adversely affe ct the success of the other. Hence, realization of the full potential of gene therapy will depend, in a major way, on the future development of safe and efficient gene delivery vectors. The Ideal Vector!!! A â€Å"perfect† or an â€Å"ideal† vector would resemble a traditional pharmaceutical and should have the following characteristics: (a) should be capable of efficiently delivering to its target an expression cassette carrying one or more genes of the size suitable for clinical application, (b) must not elicit an immune response, (c) should not induce inflammation and thus be safe for the recipient, (d) can be produced in bulk at an acceptable cost with reproducibility, (e) should be stable on storage, and finally, it should express the gene (or genes) it carries for as long as required in a strictly regulated manner. No single vector currently available has all these desired properties and each vector presently in use has its own pros and cons. However, it is important to realize that there cannot be a â€Å"universal† vector, optimally useful for all gene therapy applications. This is due to the fact that each disease will have a unique set of technical requirements, and the â€Å"perfect† vector for a specific disease should be optimized in accordance with these requirements. For example, some diseases will require local delivery of the transgene (e.g., ischemia, retinitis pigmentosa, parkinson’s disease, etc.) while others likecancer and atherosclerosis necessitate systemic delivery. In some cases, only a transient, short-lived gene expression will be needed (e.g., therapeutic angiogenesis, cancer) while in monogenic disorders, such as familial hypercholesterolemia, hemophilia and SCID a long term (sometimes life long) gene expression is mandatory (1). The future clinical success of gene therapy will certainly depend on the uphill task of designing â€Å"tailor-made† vector systems for the treatment of specific diseases. The efforts to design a â€Å"perfect vehicle† for the membrane-impermeable DNA have so far led to the development of many methods based on the principles of biology (viral vectors), physics (microinjection, electroporation, particle bombardment, hydrostatic pressure, and ultrasound) and chemistry (synthetic vectors like cationic lipids polymers). Each of these methods has its intrinsic advantages and disadvantages. Viral Vectors: Nature’s Own Infecting Vehicles Viruses have evolved specific mechanisms through the course of evolution to deliver their genetic material into host cells and then hijack the cell’s biosynthetic machinery to produce new viral particles (7). Thus, owing to their natural ability to infect cells, they can be used as vectors in gene therapy by replacing the genes that are essential for replication phase of their life cycle with the therapeutic genes of interest. Majority of the clinical trials currently underway around the world are based on the use of mainly five categories of viruses, namely, retrovirus, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, lentivirus and herpes simplex virus. Retroviruses: These are a class of enveloped viruses containing a single stranded RNA molecule (approximately 10 kb). Inside the host cell, the RNA is reverse transcribed into double stranded DNA, which in turn integrates into the host genome and is expressed as viral proteins (8). These are the most promising and widely used viral vectors used for gene therapy applications to date. Advantages: Rapidly dividing cancer cells can be targeted by using these viruses. Enters into cells efficiently and gives long lasting gene expression due to stable integration. Disadvantages: Only infects dividing cells, capable of producing tumorigenic mutagenesis due to random integration, unable to deliver larger genomic sequences. Again, it can insert the genetic material of the virus in any arbitrary position in the genome of the host- it randomly shoves the genetic material into a chromosome. Adenoviruses: These are the second most commonly used viruses for gene delivery. They carry a double stranded linear DNA chromosome of approximately 36 kb. Unlike retroviruses, adenoviruses deliver their genetic payload outside the chromosome and are thus less likely to disrupt the cell’s genome (9). But it is immunogenic and may cause inflammation and tissue damage. Adeno-associated viruses (AAV): They contain a single stranded DNA of approximately 4.7 kb surrounded by a protein coat (10) and can integrate at a specific site in human chromosome 19. AAV does not contain any viral genes and contains only the therapeutic gene and it does not integrate into the genome. It requires co-infection with a â€Å"helper† adenovirus for propagation. The advantage of AAV is that it is a non-pathogenic virus but the size for the exogenous DNA it can deliver is limited due to its smaller genome. The difficulty in large scale production is an additional disadvantage. Envelope protein pseudo typing of viral vectors: The envelope proteins on each of these viruses bind to cell-surface molecules make facile attachment to and entry into a susceptible cell. The potential for off-target cell modification would be limited, and many concerns from the medical community would be alleviated. Although viruses are the most efficient gene transfer vehicles available to date, their widespread clinical success has been impeded by the following major drawbacks: (a) Viruses are notorious for eliciting an immune response which, apart from posing a serious threat to the host, also makes a second dose of the same viral vector ineffective due to the production of high level of antibodies against the viral structural components following its initial administration. In 1999, the death of 18-year old Jesse Gelsinger, undergoing gene therapy for ornithine transcarboxylase deficiency, was believed to be triggered by a severe immune response to the adenoviral vector used. (b) Size restriction on the genetic material that can be encapsulated within the viral particles. (c) Possibility of random integration into host genome leading to the risk of inducing tumorigenic mutations (d) Purification of recombinant vector, verifying the sequence, transfecting the packaging cells, isolating and titering the transgenic virus and finally transducing the target cells are time consuming and labor intensive steps. Collectively, all of these complications associated with the use of viral vectors have prompted researchers around the world to develop artificial non-viral transfection vectors. Non-Viral Methods: Although the gene transfer efficacies of the viral vectors are unmatched till date, the above mentioned serious immunogenic concerns associated with their use have led to the development of non-viral methods for gene therapy. The non-viral vectors offer many advantages over their viral counterparts including significantly lower toxicity and immunogenicity, size independent transfer of nucleic acids, very low frequency of integration, relative ease of large-scale production, simpler quality control and substantially easier pharmaceutical and regulatory requirements. The non-viral transfection methods could be broadly classified into two types: Physical methods and Chemical methods. Physical Methods for Gene Delivery: Physical methods involve the direct introduction of genes into the target cells or tissues thereby avoiding the introduction of any foreign substance like a virus or a synthetic vector. Hence, no serious immunogenic concerns are associated with their application. The required genes are inserted via microinjection, electroporation or particle bombardment (gene gun). Microinjection: In this method, the DNA is directly injected into the nuclei of target cells using a fine glass needle under microscope. Although this method is seductively simple, it is difficult to apply clinically. While this method of gene transfer is nearly 100% efficient, it is laborious and time-consuming, typically allowing only a few hundred cells ( Electroporation: This technique involves the perturbation of the cell membrane by an electric pulse for a few microseconds resulting in the formation of transient pores thereby allowing the exogenous DNA to enter the cell cytoplasm. Although there is no limit on the size of DNA that could be delivered via electroporation, the gene transfer efficiency is low and there is high incidence of cell death (12). Gene Gun: In this method, plasmid DNA is coated onto micron size tungsten or gold micro particles and then propelled into cells using either electrostatic force or gas (Helium) pressure. The high velocity results in some DNA being trapped by a few cells and then it may be expressed at sufficient levels. This technique is fast, simple and safe and has been successfully employed to deliver nucleic acids to cultured cells as well as to cells in vivo especially gene transfer to skin (13) and superficial wounds. Chemical Methods of Gene Delivery: DEAE-Dextran: Diethylaminoethyl-dextran (DEAE-dextran) is a polycationic derivative of the carbohydrate polymer, dextran and was one of the first chemical reagents used for transfer of nucleic acids into mammalian cells (14). Owing to its positive charge, DEAE-dextran forms an electrostatic complex with the polyanionic DNA. This technique of delivering genes into cells is simple, reproducible and cost effective. However, it could prove toxic to the target cells especially when DMSO or glycerol is used as a supplementary chemical shock to increase gene transfer efficiency. Secondly, this method is not generally useful for stable transfection studies that require integration of the transferred DNA into the chromosome. A major disadvantage of this method is its ability to transfect a limited variety of cells, e.g. phagocytic cells. Calcium Phosphate: Calcium phosphate co-precipitation method for DNA delivery was first introduced by Graham and Van Der Eb in 1972 (15). This technique involves mixing of DNA with calcium chloride and then carefully adding this mixture to a phosphate buffered saline solution followed by incubation at room temperature. The finely divided DNA containing precipitate thus formed is taken up by the cells via endocytosis or phagocytosis. The main advantages of the calcium phosphate method are its simplicity, low cost, and its applicability to a wide variety of cell types. Moreover, it could be used for transient as well as stable transfection studies. The main drawbacks of the technique involve its sensitivity to slight changes in buffer salt concentrations, temperature, and pH, as well as its relatively poor transfection efficiency compared to newer transfection methods. Cationic Polymers: A wide range of organic polymers has been used for gene transfection, the most popular being polylysine polyethylenimine (PEI) (16). These have a high cationic charge density that condenses DNA into positively charged particles capable of interacting with anionic cell surfaces and entering cells via endocytosis. PEI also exhibits extensive buffering capacity across a wide range of pH which protects DNA inside the endosome from degradation via endosomal swelling and rupture. Dendrimers represent another class of polymers used for gene delivery. They consist of three-dimensional, bifurcated, branched structures called dendrons. The polyamidoamine (PAMAM) family of dendrimers has been shown to be very useful for transfection (17). Cationic Liposomes: â€Å"The Artificial Fat Bubbles† Liposomes, in general, have long been viewed as bio-compatible drug/gene delivery reagents owing to their structural similarity to cell membranes. They are spherical bilayers composed of individual lipids enclosing a watery interior. Each lipid possesses a hydrophilic head group attached via a linker to a large hydrophobic domain. When exposed to an aqueous environment, these amphiphiles spontaneously form large spherical structures known as liposomes above a certain critical vesicular concentration (CVC). Within the sphere, lipids are arranged back-to-back in bilayers with the polar hydrophilic group facing outwards shielding the hydrophobic domain from the aqueous solution. Liposomes may be unilamellar (composed of a single bilayer) or multilamellar (composed of many concentric bilayers). The multilamellar liposome (MLV) upon sonication followed by repeated extrusion through polycarbonate membranes of defined pore size assume the size of small unilamellar vesicle (SUV, 30-100 nm) o r large unilamellar vesicle (LUV, 150-250 nm) (Figure 1).

Explain the Potential Effects of Five Different Life Factors on the Development of an Individual Essay

In this assignment i am going to be taking about life factors that would effect a child, these factors include; genetic factors, biological influences before birth, enviromental influences, social- economic factors and lifestyle. The first is Genetic factors these are factors that would be inherrited by the child from the mother and father. There are a lot of different illnesses/ diseases that can be inherited from the parents such as; cystic fibrosis, coeliac disease, asthma, brittle bone disease and a lot more. These are passed to the child through their genes. If one of these illnesses are passed on to the child like brittle bone disease then this will effect the child in a negative way because they might not be able to do things properly when they are older, like sports and exersize. It would limit their oppertunities and stop them from doing things that they would later want to do. This is because if they have brittle bone disease then the persons bones would be really weak and could easily break, the bones were developed with a less amount of protein called collagen. The second is Biological influences before birth, this includes the thing that the mother of the child does while she is pregrant that would effect their babyies before being born, could be if the mother decides to smoke, take drugs, have a bad diet or drink large amounts of alcohol at one time. For example if the mother drinks durning pregrancy then this would have a negative effect on the babys development and could cause it to have foetal alcohol syndrome. A child born with foetal alcohol syndrome can be smaller, they could also have learning disabilities and heart defects. The third is Enviromental influences is the enviroment that the mother and child are living in and have been brought up in. Pollution can make people very ill, it can cause lack of brain development in small children. It can also cause people to have life threatening diseases such as cholera. The next factor is socio-economic factors this is to do with the income of your house hold . This factor can have a major effect on a persons quality of life. The main sources of income are wages from employment, benefits from the goverment, interest from bank accounts, the amount of money coming in to the house hold will be different depending on these factors. The main groups of people that live on very little money are older people,disabled people, lone-parent families and the unemployed. For example f the main earner in the family is disabled then they wont be able to work. This wil effect the wages from employment so the family will have a lower overall income. The last factor that i am going to be talking about is lifestyle. This includes how healthy and active an individual person is, a lifestyle is something that you choose, your choices and you influences. The use and mis use of substances, such as alcohol, drugs and smoking. If you mis use these substances then this can drastically changes your lifestyle and also the people around you.

Philosopher King Essay - 640 Words

1. Who is the Philosopher King - the ideal rulers, philosophers who become kings 2. Why is he the ideal ruler – Plato believes the PK is the ideal ruler because they will govern with virtue and justice with no hidden agenda, the PK loves learning, knowledge, truth 3. Why should he be compelled to rule – because a true philosopher will love the pursuit of truth, will be indifferent to the pleasures of the body, will not be interested in money, will not think human life is anything of great importance, and will not be concerned with dying 4. What is Socrates definition of justice – someone who is good and just and does good things 5. What is the nature of the philosopher – their curious to know true knowledge, inner truth, they are not†¦show more content†¦Is the PK a counter example to Socrates definition of justice – 21. Is being a ruler and being a philosopher compatible with his nature – 22. Does the PK have the ability to perform these two jobs due to his nature or due to his education- 23. If he does have to jobs would he be unjust – 24. Why might you claim that the PK is the most unjust and just individual in the city – 25. What does this imply about the city Socrates has constructed - The book â€Å"The Republic† written by Plato is about a man named Socrates who argues what the difference is between just and unjust, and who qualifies in which category and what it means to be just or unjust. In this book, Socrates discusses an ideal city and the philosopher king, which is a philosopher who qualifies as an ideal ruler. Plato believes that the philosopher king is the ideal ruler because the philosopher king loves learning and knowledge and knowing the absolute truth. The philosopher king is also thought as the ideal ruler because he will govern the city with virtue and justice and no hidden agenda. The philosopher king is felt compelled to rule because a true philosopher will love the pursuit of truth. He will be indifferent to the pleasures of the body, he will not be interested in money, he will not think human life is anything of great importance and will not be concerned with dying. Socrates’ definition of justice is someone who is good and just and does good and just things. The philosopher hadShow MoreRelatedThe Philosopher King2423 Words   |  10 Pageswhich one we’ll need? (Plato 203). The image of the philosopher king was thoroughly described in Plato’s Republic, but the perfect ruler or philosopher king has transformed throughout history and are influenced by historical events. First, the description of a perfect ruler in an ideal society in Plato’s Republic will be the first comparison and the basis of a philosopher king. Second, Marcus Aurelius, who was described as the first philosopher king wrote Meditations and it expresses his own thoughtsRead MoreThe Dividing Lien of Platos Allegory of the Cave Essay2647 Words   |  11 Pagesforms begin. Plato states that this line divides the visual world we live in, the world of the shadows, and the intelligible world, the world of the forms. â€Å"Understand, then, that as we said, there are two things, one sovereign of the intelligible king and place, the other the visible.† (Plato) In the visible world the â€Å"good† is exemplified by the Sun. Without the sun shedding light to the objects around us, we would not be able to fully understand them; much like how the form of the good is neededRead MoreSocrates as Philosopher King Essay1709 Words   |  7 Pagesstories of great men.   Hundreds of politicians, philosophers, performers, and writers have left a unique stamp on humanity.   But only a select few can be said to have changed history.   The legendary Athenian, Socrates, was one such figure.   Socrates ushered in an era of philosophical inquiry that still lingers to this day.   In Book Seven of Platos The Republic, Socrates outlines his perfect regime.   According to Socrates, an enlightened Philosopher-King must rule such a regime.   Now suppose thisRead MoreEnlightened Philosophers (John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Jean Jacques Rousseau)1495 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, a nd Jean Jacques Rousseau were all enlightenment philosophers. Each of these men had a particular view of government, society, and its citizens and they were all passionate about their works. Locke (1632- 1704) was an English philosopher, his ideas had a great impact on the development of political philosophy and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential enlightenment thinkers. Montesquieu (1689- 1755) believed that all things were made up ofRead MorePlatos Ideas About Philosopher Kings Depicted in Republic Essay1698 Words   |  7 Pagesphilosophy would allow man to see what was good and just. Therefore to cure the ills of society it would be necessary to either make kings philosophers or make philosophers kings. I intend to show how Plato justifies this view and then attempt to point out some possible problems with this justification and to forward my own view that the people should ultimately be king. Platos starting point was his recognition that justice was one of four cardinal virtues, along with wisdom, courage and moderationRead MoreHuman Nature, By Jean Jacques Rousseau And Thomas Hobbes1711 Words   |  7 PagesThe notion of human nature has always been historically debated. Explores, philosophers, and writers have always come to argue on what is considered to be barbarism, savagery, and civilized. These constructed categories have put a label on people who do not share the same ideas as one another. These different views of human nature have come to propel change and have come to revolutionized human history. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Michel de Montaigne, and Thomas Hobbes all differ on their ideas of humanRead MoreThe Effects Of Poetry On His Noble State1412 Words   |  6 Pagesaccordance to the form, and the bed painted by the painter in accordance to the image of the form. Socrates explains that the painter is, â€Å"an imitator of what the others make.† Since th e painter is an imitator, he is deemed, â€Å"by nature third from the king and the truth, as are all other imitators.† By way of the transitive property, Socrates concludes that since imitators also create poetry, poetry too, is third removed from the truth. Socrates then goes on to give examples of the effects that poetryRead MoreOedipus Rex As Tragedy : The Philosopher Must Be Crazy845 Words   |  4 PagesOedipus Rex as Tragedy: The Philosopher Must Be Crazy Throughout the ages many scholars have agreed with Aristotle s assessment of Oedipus Rex (the Athenian tragedy written by Sophocles) as the truest form of tragedy; however, modern viewers might remark that it is unworthy of such praise and instead should be exemplified as the proof that an addition to Aristotle s ideal of tragedy itself is required: the element of timelessness. 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And lastly, having the play unfold, one is able to sympathize with Oedipus and strike pity and fear rather than disgust from his sins. The power of fate in Oedipus the King was one that shaped the entire story. In the beginning

Essay about The Perpetual Battle Against Censorship

There is more than one way to burn a book, (176) says Ray Bradbury when explaining the reason he wrote Fahrenheit 451. Bradbury at the time was upset about condensed books, or books which had been simplified for easier reading. Luckily, this fad seems to have passed. However, he was also upset about people who wrote asking him to change the role of women or African-Americans to make them more or less dominant in some of his works. One of the major themes in Fahrenheit 451 was just that; a society where everyone got what they wished and literature was eliminated entirely so it wouldnt offend anyone. Sadly, this still continues to happen in the United States. Many books have been banned from school and public libraries because†¦show more content†¦According to the ACLU, this applies not only to pure speech (books, newspapers, leaflets, and rallies), but also nonverbal expressions that communicate ideas (ACLU . . .). To take the good with the bad, not only does it pr otect popular ideas, but also ideas expressed by hate groups and those against the government. The only exceptions that have ever been made to the first amendment are the two Supreme Court cases Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942) and New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) (ACLU . . .). In the Chaplinsky case, the court ruled that free speech was not protected if the speech was fighting words or words meant to provoke the person to whom they are addressed (ACLU . . .). In the case of New York Times v. Sullivan, the Supreme Court ruled that free speech is also not protected when it is slander against public officials (ACLU . . .). Mostly however, these two Supreme Court cases apply only to journalism, as most classic and contemporary literature is not directed simply at one person. Despite all this protection, the decision to ban books from libraries is largely left up to the schools and institutions themselves (Banned Books Online), and a federal ban is very rare, practically nonexistent today. If we have the first amendment, then why are books still federally banned? There is a U.S. law that forbids the trade of obscene literature, or articles of immoral useShow MoreRelatedWhere Is the Balance Between Order and Freedom?1612 Words   |  7 Pageshas been like a pendulum, swinging back and forth due to cause and effect. Lately, for the past decade, the line between order and freedom has been swinging towards the side of increased order; this is evident by the Patriot Act, recent internet censorship bills, and the people’s reaction to American society via the Occupy movement. While there is always going to be a back and forth, currently the line between order and freedom is moving towards one direction. â€Å"It is still impossible for man to organizeRead More American Film and Movies from the 1950’s to Present Essay examples2422 Words   |  10 Pagesmoral arenas for its potential impact on an audience. Critics claim that watching films is a passive activity in which the viewer becomes subconsciously absorbed, and creates a reliance or addiction to the medium, and thus can be influenced by any perpetual concepts or images. Advocates, however, argue that viewing such programs is an active process in which audience members are able to choose to what they are exposed, and interpret messages based on their individual needs and background. Perhaps bothRead MoreThe And Challenger Launch : Study Of Ethics And Ethics1590 Words   |  7 Pagesdata by emotion† (Bergin, 2007). 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